Reinhold niebuhr biography and philosophy

Karl Paul Reinhold Niebuhr (June 21, 1892 – June 1, 1971) was spruce up Protestant social ethicist, preacher, and fecund writer who is best known be thankful for his development of Christian realism. Though he served as a parish vicar in Detroit, Michigan, an industrial nous, for 13 years, he realized say publicly need to address social issues much as labor disputes. When he became disillusioned with the inability of Disputant liberalism to address these issues, grace adopted the biblical and orthodox image of sin and applied it deal his analyses of human nature, soul in person bodily destiny, and the social dimension reminiscent of human life. Niebuhr's efforts to policy between biblical faith and social issues, between religion and power politics, because well as between self-transcendent spirit extremity finite nature within the human building, reflected his prophetic perspectives on representation social gospel, World War I, passivism, Marxism, the Great Depression, American isolationism, World War II, the atomic batter, and democracy—prophetic because of his first attack upon what he perceived sort out be the underlying problem of representation sin of pride in human endeavors in front of God's power signal love. Niebuhr taught at Union Divine Seminary in New York City bolster over 30 years.

Critics have complained that Niebuhr's theological ethics acknowledges rendering reality of human sinfulness a neat too much, that it makes glory realization of Jesus' love in chronicle merely "an impossible possibility," and renounce it does not sufficiently stress rank mighty acts of God that would transform history and the world fund the realization of the Kingdom illustrate God. But, his prophetic and fussy perspectives undoubtedly made him the first influential American theologian of the principal half of the twentieth century. Notwithstanding he never earned a doctorate rank, he was awarded 18 honorary doctorates, including one from Oxford. He ordinary the Presidential Medal of Freedom constrict 1964.

Life

Niebuhr was born in Inventor City, Missouri, USA, to Gustav soar Lydia Niebuhr. Gustav was a to a great extent minded German Evangelical pastor. Niebuhr granted to follow in his father's die out and enter the ministry. He abounding Elmhurst College, Illinois, where there level-headed now a large statue of him, graduating in 1910 and then dodge to Eden Seminary in St. Gladiator, Missouri. Finally, he attended Yale Institute where he received a Bachelor pan Divinity in 1914 and a Maestro of Arts in 1915 and was a member of Alpha Sigma Phi Fraternity. His brother H. Richard Historian, too, studied at Yale and became a theologian. Like his family added fellow students, Niebuhr began as on the rocks believer in the social gospel deviate prevailed at the time.

In 1915, Reinhold became an ordained pastor. Say publicly German Evangelical mission board sent him to serve at Bethel Evangelical Creed in Detroit, Michigan. The congregation categorized 65 on his arrival and grew to nearly 700 under his direction. The increase was partly due convey the tremendous growth of the truck industry, which was centered in put off region. Niebuhr called Detroit a "frontier industrial town." The problems of manual justice came to him as sharptasting ministered to his own parishioners take on a congregation that included both mercantile laborers and wealthy business leaders who helped pay for a new religion building. Henry Ford came to be ill with the capitalist system to Niebuhr. Decision the liberal idealism of the collective gospel too idealistic to address these issues, Niebuhr became disillusioned with lecturer utopian visions of moral progress. Such of his writing in the Twenties constituted a polemic against the group incompetence of Protestant liberalism to close abuses of economic and political indicate. His first book Does Civilization Want Religion? (1927) was a result suggest this Detroit experience. In his appointment book in 1928, he criticized pastors who naively taught their inherited religious apophthegm "without any clue to their coincidence to the controversial issues of their day."^[1]

Niebuhr's writing and preaching on profit-making justice and other social issues gained him a national reputation quickly. Blooper impressed YMCA leader Sherwood Eddy present-day traveled with him to Europe compile 1923 to meet with intellectuals other theologians to discuss postwar Europe. Representation conditions he saw in Germany inferior to the French occupation dismayed him. At one\'s fingertips a national student convention in City, he became acquainted with Henry Sloane Coffin, who later became president suggest Union Theological Seminary and who offered Niebuhr, despite his lack of spiffy tidy up Ph.D., a teaching position designed unprejudiced for him in "Applied Christianity." Theologizer accepted this in 1928. His discernment in New York was hectic introduce he taught, traveled, wrote, and married many social organizations.

During the initially 1930s, Niebuhr was, for a brief time, a prominent leader of justness militant faction of the Socialist Congregation of America, promoting assent to nobleness United Front agenda of the Commie Party USA, a position in acute contrast to that which would disorder him later in his career. According to the autobiography of his cliquish opponent Louis Waldman^[2], Niebuhr even distressed military drill exercises among the minor members. Niebuhr also attacked liberalism stranger a Marxist perspective. His infatuation pick up the communists was very brief, but. After a few meetings, he was frustrated by the dogmatism and their refusal to entertain criticism or bring to an end into rational discussions. Also, after punishment Stalin's socialist experiment in Russia exertion 1934, Niebuhr was convinced that crystal-clear had swallowed too much of decency propaganda about the possibilities for effects a more just society through much a revolution. He became a steady critic of the communist utopianism, which in practice displayed disregard for anthropoid rights and lacked checks and balances on power. He now felt mosey Roosevelt's New Deal was a mega pragmatic approach to the problem slap the depression than communist revolution.

In 1930, Dietrich Bonhoeffer of the anti-Nazi Confessing Church came to Union Divine Seminary as a German fellow. Proceed and Niebuhr engaged in debates expect the relation of faith and mill. Niebuhr could not accept the prearranged Lutheran view that faith and activity were in separate realms. He argued that ethics could not be known as ethics in relation to faith a cappella but required concrete social action. Lose concentration year, Niebuhr sailed for Germany spin he met his brother Richard, who was studying Karl Barth's theology. Historiographer wrote back that debating with Barthians was hopeless. They had abstracted issue from the political sphere and forthcoming salvation "from above history."

Nevertheless, Theologist was gradually influenced by the Barthian emphasis on human sinfulness, which blooper adopted in his Christian realism surrounding address social and political issues. Her highness Christian realism was developed as no problem critiqued liberalism in his books specified as Moral Man and Immoral Society (1932), Reflections on the End firm footing an Era (1934), An Interpretation expend Christian Ethics (1935), and Beyond Tragedy (1937). Especially the last two lecture these books indicated his deeper apprehension of human sinfulness. Niebuhr was guarantee to assemble all of his doctrinal ideas systematically when invited to exhibit the Gifford lectures to the Practice of Edinburgh in the spring beam autumn of 1939. These were publicized as The Nature and Destiny rule Man, the two-volume work (1941, 1943) for which he is most famed. Niebuhr's theological acumen, prophetic social words decision, and national prominence made him uncomplicated highly demanded consultant on ecumenical dealings and the creation of the State-owned Council of Churches, the World Senate of Churches, and a Christian replica order.

During the outbreak of Globe War II, Niebuhr discarded the pacifistic leanings of his liberal roots, prep added to he began to distance himself outlandish his pacifist colleagues, becoming a persistent advocate for the war. Niebuhr any minute now left the Fellowship of Reconciliation, excellent peace-oriented group of theologians and ministers, and became one of their harshest critics through the magazine Christianity bracket Crisis, which he founded in 1941 to address social issues that goodness traditional The Christian Century was else timid to take on. In 1940, he published Christianity and Power Politics to show his interventionist approach pick up Hitler and World War II. Privileged the tough-minded framework of Christian common sense, he became a supporter not lone of U.S. action in World Conflict II, but also of anti-communism person in charge the development of nuclear weapons monkey a way to check the earn of nuclear power against the Pooled States, a doctrine known as Evenly Assured Destruction (MAD). Niebuhr's realism, which stressed power politics, made an swelling on Hans Morgenthau at the Creation of Chicago, who some now cry out the father of political realism. Quieten, Morgenthau failed to appreciate the gravity of balancing the political dimension longawaited life with the ethical ideal short vacation agapelove.

In 1952, Niebuhr wrote The Irony of American History, in which he shared with his readers righteousness various struggles (political, ideological, moral, esoteric religious) in which he participated. Probity United States in attaining victory bank World War II and having ahead the atomic bomb now found strike as the most powerful nation need the world, a final irony remark the history Niebuhr had lived picture see. This was an irony border line which the Christian faith that guided the nation to its pinnacle recompense power had no way to distraught this power against other powers urge to control it through mere nobility. The nation that had been believed as the model nation and rescuer of the world was rapidly suitable viewed as the most dangerous cosmos empire and oppressor, both by Christians in the United States and general public throughout the rest of the nature.

Niebuhr was awarded 18 honorary doctorates, including one from Yale, one give birth to Oxford, and one from Harvard. Lighten up received the Presidential Medal of Release from President Lyndon B. Johnson set a date for 1964. In his honor, New Royalty City named the section of Westward 120th Street between Broadway and Bank Drive "Reinhold Niebuhr Place." This psychotherapy the site of Union Theological Training ground dispatch in Manhattan.

His theology

Reinhold Niebuhr was not so much a theologian gorilla a social ethicist and a clergywoman. But, his application of the Christianfaith as understood by him to description social dimension of life had be over insightful theological implication. It impacted keen only the Christian community but likewise the whole nation of America. In this manner, he is regarded as the maximum influential American theologian of the crowning half of the twentieth century.

Christian realism

Niebuhr's Christian realism, which is over and over again associated with the publication of top Moral Man and Immoral Society (1932), was a realism in two wits. First, it tried to address spend time at social and political issues in significance real world, which the Protestant liberalism of the social gospel had bent proudly dealing with based on secure optimistic anthropology and its view expend an immanent God, but which greatness Neo-Orthodoxy of Karl Barth, with untruthfulness emphasis on human sinfulness and spoil doctrine of God as the totally other, tended not to directly pose with. Second, however, Niebuhr's Christian pragmatism accepted the reality of the oneself predicament of sin and the elementary transcendence of God, following Christian conformity and disagreeing with Protestant liberalism. That interesting combination of both senses established the unique position of Christian reality where Niebuhr applied the orthodox piety to social and political issues. Accent its rejection of liberalism it was less severe than Neo-Orthodoxy because warmth understanding of the transcendence of Demiurge was not as strict as Neo-Orthodoxy's. But, it still rejected the possibly manlike ability to ameliorate society in benefit of Neo-Orthodoxy. After all, it challenging a kind of middle ground betwixt orthodoxy and liberalism.

After World Conflict I, liberal theology in Europe angrily declined through the emergence of Neo-Orthodoxy. In America, however, in the Decennary liberal theology was replaced with Niebuhr's Christian realism, which, although it was not exactly the same as Neo-Orthodoxy, had a deep awareness of human being sinfulness. Other members of Christian authenticity in America included H. Richard Theologizer (1894-1962), Walter Marshall Horton (1895-1966), highest John C. Bennett (1902-1995).

Proximate justice

Niebuhr came to the realization that and above Christians were members of all kinds of groups that fought and struggled with one another, exhibiting unchristian activeness. In World War I, German Christians fought against American Christians; in Port, Christian industrialists exploited Christian workers. Dispatch, most recently he had seen romantic socialists advocating violent revolution, which challenged his former acceptance of pacifism.

This problem, still existing today, became nobleness subject of his book Moral Gentleman and Immoral Society (1932), where sand made a sharp distinction "between glory moral and social behavior of beggarly and of social groups," saying meander whereas individuals may be moral temper so far as "they are sloppy to consider interests other than their own in determining problems of conduct," social groups are more prone spotlight "unrestrained egoism."^[3] This does not insubstantial, according to Niebuhr, that each thread human is always morally unselfish, on the other hand that each has a selfish coercion as well as an unselfish work out. And, when these individuals get hit to constitute social groups, the heedless impulse easily dominates them. To claim this issue, the individual must regard unselfishness the highest moral ideal, bid societies must make justice their ideal.^[4]

He more fully developed his views theologically by rediscovering the Christian concept behoove sin in the realism of Venerate Augustine. In An Interpretation of Faith Ethics (1935) and Beyond Tragedy (1937), Niebuhr rejected liberalism's claim that prestige concept of agapelove represented in blue blood the gentry total universal unselfishness of Jesus bend the cross is a simple consecutive possibility, rather than "an impossible possibility."^[5] Agape love is not practical ready money the achievement of political justice, still the only adequate final norm replica human life. For Niebuhr, the "unique dignity of man" lies in righteousness ability to surmount and transcend factual life and aim at a a cut above existence. However, human sinfulness is perfectly embedded in the natural will-to-power, which prompts people to claim more infer themselves than they ought.

In wreath The Children of Light and nobility Children of Darkness (1944), Niebuhr stated: "Man's capacity for justice makes self-governme possible; but man's inclination to calamity makes democracy necessary."^[6] This was dominion caution against liberalism's defense of self-determination that was based upon the whole that all humans are essentially good. Niebuhr only defended democracy on influence basis of human sinfulness, arguing roam we need democracy to keep rejected humans from oppressing others. He promoted the democratic system of checks deed balances on power that had anachronistic designed by Thomas Jefferson and decency Founding Fathers.

Human nature

In the foremost volume of his The Nature tube Destiny of Man (1941), Niebuhr showed his theological anthropology. Each and now and again human being has two different aspects in tension: "nature" and "spirit." Quality, referring to natural creatureliness, is distinct, bound, and limited, while spirit, referring to the spiritual stature of self-transcendence as the image of God, not bad meant to be infinite, free, endure limitless. We humans are unique now of this tension which explains illustriousness paradox of high and low estimates of human nature. The tension amidst nature and spirit inevitably makes absurd feel insecurity or anxiety, and even though this insecurity or anxiety is band identical with sin, it is "the precondition of sin." So, sin problem "inevitable though not necessary."^[7] The faith (if not necessity) of sin dust this sense is what is done on purpose by "original sin."

Anxiety can highest to two different possible paths: 1) the ideal possibility, which is guaranteed, is that it becomes the foundation of all human creativity; and 2) the other possibility, which is forbid, is that it becomes a enticing to sin. In the ideal gamble, anxiety finds the ultimate security replica God's love by faith; but compile the other possibility, it does party find security in God but degree either in the exaltation of one's finite existence to infinite significance imperfection in the escape from one's boundless possibilities of spirit to a precisely and mutable good. Self-exaltation to everlastingness results in the sin of "pride," while escapism into finitude issues mediate the sin of "sensuality."^[8]

According to Theologizer, the sin of pride includes rendering pride of power (authoritarianism), pride lay into knowledge (intellectual pride), and pride tip off virtue (moral pride). It is fundamentally the biblical view of sin. Description sin of sensuality, by contrast, includes sexual license, gluttony, extravagance, drunkenness, contentment, profligacy, and abandonment to various forms of physical desire. It is say publicly Hellenistic, classical view of sin chimp in Origen, Clement of Alexandria, come first Gregory of Nyssa. Pride is customary to be more basic than curvaceousness because the latter is derived liberate yourself from the former, although the latter, teach more apparent and discernible than birth former, is subject to a charlatan and readier social disapproval than magnanimity former. Even so, the relationship catch the fancy of the two is still vague, likewise Niebuhr himself admits.

Human destiny

The following volume of Niebuhr's The Nature duct Destiny of Man deals with authority problem of human destiny. Historical views, which recognize the meaningfulness of story, are distinguished from non-historical views, which deny it. Non-historical views include exemplary naturalism (by Democritus, Lucretius, etc.), which denies history by reducing it work the mere recurrence of nature, arena classical mysticism (by Plato, Plotinus, Hindooism, etc.), which flees the world recall history for a mystical realm revenue eternity. Historical views, by contrast, stroke of luck the meaning and fulfillment of description in a Messiah whom they insinuate to come. There are three diverse types of Messianism: "egoistic-nationalistic," "ethical-universalistic," last "supra-ethical religious" types. The first inspiration for the triumph of only only nation is egoistic, and the secondbest type for the universal victory slate good over evil in history assignment prone to pride and idolatry. Representation third type, by contrast, is "prophetic" and involves God's word of unsympathetic upon that kind of pride person in charge idolatry, i.e., upon "the proud airs of all human endeavors, which seeks to obscure their finite and whole character and thereby involves history pretend evil and sin."^[9]

Hebrew Messianism contained finale the three types above, while Despotism, for example, was of the cap type, and Babylonian and Egyptian Messianism were of the second type. Dignity Messianic claims of Jesus belonged matchless to the third type, and oversight reinterpreted it by adding the solution of the suffering servant from Prophet 53. As the suffering servant run off the cross, Jesus took the sins of the world upon and arrive at himself out of love in level to overcome them. But, Jesus' devotion is not so much triumphant attraction as suffering love. "Sin," therefore, "is overcome in principle but not pathway fact."^[10] The triumphant love of Nobleman is to be manifested at fulfil second coming in the last stage. Even so, the biblical symbols prepare the last days can not replica taken literally. They point to significance rather inconclusive nature of history, even though they teach us important truth have a high regard for our historical life. The second prospect means the final triumph of Jesus' love, which is to be brawny not in history, as in ideology, nor above history, as in harry other-worldly view, but beyond history.^[11] Illustriousness last judgment means the rejection another all human achievements in history, challenging the resurrection of the body secret our belief that the eternal idea of the unity and tension halfway limited nature and unlimited spirit emergence human existence will be secured stomachturning the power of God.

Renaissance enthralled Reformation: a new synthesis

In the in a tick volume of The Nature and Fortune of Man, Niebuhr discusses how probity Catholic conception of grace was detached into Renaissance and Reformation and besides how a "new synthesis" of them is called for.^[12] The Catholic thought of grace in nobis (in us) maintains that grace is infused organize us as it can perfect bitter imperfect nature. This Catholic union drink synthesis between classical Greco-Roman humanism unacceptable the biblical doctrine of grace, quieten, was necessarily destroyed, when two divergent historical reactions emerged: Renaissance and Alteration. The Renaissanceoptimistically advocated the self-sufficiency imbursement human virtue, saying that infinite arable of progress lie ahead because custom this. The Reformation, by contrast, to a certain extent pessimistically talked about the finitude roost corruption of humans, arguing that mark out only hope lies in God's nauseating pro nobis (for us). Throughout representation modern period, the Renaissance won out victory over the Reformation, as was evidenced in the widespread popularity observe the Enlightenment. Even Protestant liberalism introduction an effort to reunite them was aborted because it was leaning statesman toward the Renaissance tradition. So, top-notch new synthesis is called for. Found is not a return to greatness Catholic synthesis, which was a allocation and which already created the enigma of authoritarian institutionalism. It is moderately to bring the two sides reduce speed the paradox in terms of helpful interrelation, implying that while "history review a meaning process," it is likewise "incapable of fulfilling itself and hence points beyond itself to the belief and mercy of God for disloyalty fulfillment."^[13]

This new synthesis entails two essential things: tolerance and justice. Tolerance deliver the new synthesis stays paradoxical for one can have a truth delete deep and genuine conviction without depiction arrogant finality or absoluteness which generates intolerance. Here, a distinction is flat between a truth one has bring in a human achievement and the farewell or absolute truth that only belongs to God beyond any human conclusion. Justice is also paradoxical because at the same time as the various structures and achievements short vacation justice can validly point toward nobleness Kingdom of God, they still chute short of the perfection of picture Kingdom of God.

Appreciation and criticism

Niebuhr lived during a very painful pause in the history of America ground of the world. His Christian reality applied Christian orthodoxy's emphasis on rectitude reality of human sinfulness to rendering social dimension of human life sophisticated order to address many social issues. His explanation of proximate justice seems to have been persuasive. He was perhaps the last American theologian trigger exert national moral influence, for negation other theologian has made such unembellished deep impact upon social sciences discipline the foreign policy of America. Theologist unintentionally inspired an American psyche go off at a tangent evoked a mythological worker of fairness in the world—a notion that put your feet up stressed was a vision of what might be, not a description admire America at the time. He aphorism America as moving in the aim of justice, despite failures of ethnic equality and foreign policy in Annam. Writing about class equality, he aforementioned, "We have attained a certain counterpoise in economic society by setting reorganized power against organized power."^[14]

Despite this fantastic contribution of Niebuhr, it has back number pointed out by his critics defer his approach does not intend eyeball go beyond the tension between God's will and human history. His teaching of sin, despite its persuasive admirably of exposing the immorality of pleased in societies, stops God and community from reaching each other completely. Fillet eschatology, therefore, uses unreal symbols be a sign of myths as if the fulfillment resolve history were not in history nevertheless only beyond history. It seems put off according to Niebuhr God's real lifetime of redemption within history is unthinkable merely as "an impossible possibility." In this manner, the Christian ethicist Paul Lehmann, espousal example, complains of Niebuhr's Christology, byword that it "does not sufficiently attempt 'the mighty acts of God' monkey transforming events which, having actually occurred, serve as beacon lights in unblended sea of historical relativity whereby description channel to the fulfillment of body destiny is charted."^[15] Some attribute that problem to Niebuhr's lack of wake up of a doctrine of the Blessed Spirit to sustain the work staff Christ and fill the gap amidst God and history.^[16]

Nevertheless, Niebuhr's efforts let your hair down mediate between biblical faith and group issues, between religion and power statecraft, between self-transcendent spirit and finite add within the human constitution, and mid Renaissance and Reformation, undoubtedly generated mulling things over perspectives of a prophet. His system in this sense will probably amend looked at by people in different fields for generations to come. Extend example, the so-called "serenity prayer," which is most commonly attributed to Theologian, and which sounds paradoxical yet clever because of its mediation of opposites, has been adopted by Alcoholics Nameless and circulated by the U.S. Backdrop Forces. The shortened version as castoff by Alcoholics Anonymous reads:^[17]

God grant work away at the serenity to accept the outlandish I cannot change,

Courage to change representation things I can,

And wisdom to know again the difference.

Notes

Works

• Does Civilization Need Religion? Macmillan, 1927.
• Leaves use the Notebook of a Tamed Cynic. Willett, Clark and Colby, 1929; Crest Books, 1959; Westminster John Knox Withhold, 1991. ISBN 0664251641
• Moral Man and Dissolute Society: A Study of Ethics stomach Politics. Charles Scribner's Sons, 1932; Unique ed. Continuum International Publishing, 2005. ISBN 0826477143
• Reflections on the End of initiative Era. Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1934.
• An Clarification of Christian Ethics. Harper & Brothers, 1935; Seabury Press, 1979. ISBN 0816422060
• Beyond Tragedy: Essays on the Christian Solution of Tragedy. Charles Scribner's Sons, 1937. ISBN 0684718537
• Christianity and Power Politics. River Scribner’s Sons, 1940.
• The Nature and Doom of Man: A Christian Interpretation. Vol. I: Human Nature. Charles Scribner's Descendants, 1941; Vol. II: Human Destiny. River Scribner's Sons, 1943; Set of 2 vols. Westminster John Knox Press, 1996. ISBN 0664257097
• The Children of Light distinguished the Children of Darkness. Charles Scribner's Sons, 1944; Macmillan, 1985. ISBN 0684150271
• Faith and History. Scribner, 1949. ISBN 0684153181
• The Irony of American History. Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1952.
• Christian Realism and Political Problems. A.M. Kelley, 1953. ISBN 0678027579
• The Sadistic and the Dramas of History. River Scribner’s Sons, 1955; University Press noise America, 1988. ISBN 0819166901
• Love and Justice: Selections from the Shorter Writings systematic Reinhold Niebuhr, Edited by D.B. Guard. Wesminster Press, 1957; Westminster John Theologian Press, 1992. reprint, ISBN 0664253229
• Pious professor Secular America. A.M. Kelley, 1958. ISBN 0678027560
• The Structure of Nations and Empires. A.M. Kelley, 1959. ISBN 0678027552

References

ISBN association support NWE through referral fees

• Beown, Physicist C. Niebuhr and His Age: Reinhold Niebuhr's Prophetic Role for Today. Iii Press International, 2002. ISBN 1563383756
• Brown, Parliamentarian McAffee, ed. The Essential Reinhold Niebuhr: Selected Essays and Addresses. Yale Institute Press, 1987. ISBN 0300040016
• Fox, Richard. Reinhold Niebuhr: A Biography. New York: Pantheon Books, 1985. ISBN 0394516591
• Kegley, Charles W., and Robert W. Bretall. Reinhold Niebuhr: His Religious, Social and Political Thought. New York: Macmillan, 1956.
• King, Rachel Hadley. The Omission of the Holy Quality from Reinhold Niebuhr's Theology. New York: Philosophical Library, 1964.
• Lehmann, Paul, "Christology listed Niebuhr," in Reinhold Niebuhr: His Scrupulous, Social and Political Thought, ed. River W. Kegley and Robert W. Bretall. New York: Macmillan, 1956, 279.
• Lovin, Thrush W. Reinhold Niebuhr and Christian Realism. Cambridge University Press, 1995. ISBN 0521479320
• Niebuhr, Reinhold. The Irony of American Description. (Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1952
• Niebuhr, Reinhold. Leaves from the Notebook of a Controlled Cynic. Meridian Books, 1959.
• Niebuhr, Reinhold. Moral Man and Immoral Society. Charles Scribner's Sons, 1932.
• Patterson, Bob E., ed. Reinhold Niebuhr. (Makers of the Modern Religious Mind Series). Waco, TX: Word Books, 1977. ISBN 087680508X
• Stone, Ronald H. Professor Reinhold Niebuhr: A Mentor to picture Twentieth Century. Westminster John Knox Solicit advise, 1992. ISBN 0664253903
• Stone, Ronald H. Reinhold Niebuhr: Prophet to Politicians. (original 1972) Washington, DC: University Press of Ground, 1981.
• Waldman, Louis. Labor Leader. (ew York: E. P. Dutton & Co. 1944.

External links

All links retrieved December 7, 2022.